Recognition of the Modes of Acquisition of Ownership; A Comparative Study in the Laws of Iran and Egypt, Imamiyyah and Sunni Jurisprudence

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Associate Professor of Private Law, Faculty of Law and Political Science, Allameh Tabataba'i University

2 MA in Private Law, Faculty of Law and Political Sciences, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran

10.22099/jls.2024.51252.5214

Abstract

Introduction: The modes of acquisition of ownership (Asbāb al-Tamalluk) are among the fundamental topics in civil law, which, despite their great importance, have received less attention. Article 140 of the Civil Code of Iran, in stating the modes of acquisition of ownership, is drafted with an exclusive language, making it appear as if the legislator considers the creation of ownership to be confined to those specific instances. However, the existence of numerous other modes of ownership is inconsistent with the ostensibly exclusive nature of this article. Consequently, the position of the modes that create ownership—as the most complete real right and the most important proprietary right—remains ambiguous. This research seeks to clarify the reasons for the exclusive language of the modes of acquisition of ownership in Article 140 by examining sources aligned with the Iranian legal system. Furthermore, it aims to identify its types and classifications, and to reveal the origin of the introduction of this discussion into the Civil Code
Methods: This fundamental research, with a descriptive-analytical and comparative approach, studies various aspects of the modes of acquisition of ownership. Also, for data collection using the library method, it examines various legal sources within the legal systems of Iran and Egypt, as well as Imamiyyah and Sunni jurisprudence
Findings: The discussion on the Shari'a modes of acquisition of ownership has long been present in Imamiyyah and Sunni jurisprudence; so much so that some jurists have endeavored to explain these modes comprehensively—an indication that the enumeration of the modes of ownership has a clear precedent in jurisprudence. This subject is also observed in the Egyptian Civil Code under the title "Modes of Acquiring Ownership" (Asbāb Kasb al-Milkiyyah), which indicates the Egyptian legislator's intent to limit these modes; although the limited examples provided in this code are not considered complete either. Also noteworthy is the presentation of the types of modes of acquisition of ownership in Article 1248 of the Majallah al-Aḥkām al-ʿAdliyyah (The Ottoman Civil Code). Therefore, the limitation of the modes of acquisition of ownership is preceded by precedent, and Article 140 of the Iranian Civil Code was also enacted not due to a literary error, but consciously and in line with that previous practice; however, like them, it has not succeeded in limiting these modes and has omitted some instances. Thus, contrary to the popular opinion of jurists, the topic of the modes of acquisition of ownership cannot be considered merely a French import; rather, Article 140 of the Civil Code, like some other articles, is an adaptation drawn simultaneously from both jurisprudence (Fiqh) and French civil law.
A comparative study with the jurisprudence of the [Islamic] schools of law and Egyptian law reveals that there are numerous instances of modes of acquisition of ownership that the Iranian legislator has not addressed. However, in general, the modes of acquisition of ownership can be divided into three categories: Voluntary (Ikhtiyārī), Involuntary (Qahrī), and Fulfillment of Obligations Creating Ownership (Īfāʾ al-Tazammunāt Mūjidat al-Milkiyyah).
Voluntary modes include contracts (ʿUqūd) and unilateral dispositions (Īqāʿāt). Contracts creating ownership, in addition to the technical translative contracts (ʿUqūd al-Tamlīkiyyah al-Iṣṭilāḥiyyah), also include dower (Mahr), rescission by mutual agreement (Iqālah), and a resolutory condition (acting like a suspended rescission - al-Sharṭ al-Fāsikh ka-māthil al-Iqālah al-Muʿallaqah). Ownership-creating unilateral dispositions (al-Īqāʿāt al-Mumlikah) include appropriation of ownerless things (Ḥiyāzat al-Mubāḥāt), pre-emption (Shufʿah), rescission of a translative contract (Faskh al-ʿAqd al-Tamlīkī), retraction from a gift (Rujūʿ ʿan al-Hibah), and confiscation (Muṣādarah).Involuntary modes are created by operation of law or Shari'a and include inheritance (Irth), accession/annexation (Tabiʿiyyah), dissolution of a translative contract by operation of law (Infiṣākh al-ʿAqd al-Tamlīkī bi-ḥukm al-qānūn), and the ownership of a usurper over a usurped thing that has undergone a change in essence (transformation - al-Māl al-Maghṣūb al-Mutaghayyir al-Māhiyyah)
Fulfillment of obligations creating ownership itself falls into three parts: First, fulfillment of obligations arising from involuntary guarantee (legal/quasi-delictual obligations - Ḍamān Qahrī), such as returning the equivalent in case of loss or destruction of property (Radd al-Mithl fī Talaf aw Itlāf al-Māl). Second, fulfillment of legal obligations (al-Tazammunāt al-Qānūniyyah), such as alimony (Nafaqah) in case of delivery of the specific thing. Third, fulfillment of contractual obligations (al-Tazammunāt al-Taqāwuḍiyyah), such as fulfillment of the obligation in a contract of manufacture (ʿAqd al-Iṣtināʿ) where the construction of the product causes the ownership of the obligee (al-Mutaʿahhid lahu).
Conclusion: Despite the various instances of legitimate and legal modes of acquisition of ownership in different sources, providing a list, even if comprehensive, of these modes in the law is not feasible. Based on this, the existence of an article aiming to enumerate these modes is unnecessary and exemplifies legislative inflation (Ṭūrām al-Qawānīn - inflation of laws). Therefore, it is preferable to delete this article and leave the possibility of identifying these modes to the courts and legal doctrine. However, if the intention is to retain a list of these modes, presenting their general classification in the manner of the jurists is the best choice. Hence, amending this article as follows is proposed: "Ownership is obtained through all legal causes (Asbāb Qānūniyyah), including voluntary causes, involuntary causes, and the fulfillment of obligations creating ownership."

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

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Khouyi, A. (1989). Misbah Al-Fiqaha, vol. 7, 1st edition, Qom: Al-Dawari Library [In Arabic].
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Shokry Srour, M. (2009). Summary of the Regulation of Property Rights in the Egyptian Civil Code, 1st edition, Cairo: Dar Alnahda [In Arabic].
Suyuti, J. (1990). Al-Ashbah wa al-Naza'ir in the Rules and Subtopics of Shafi'i Jurisprudence, 1st edition, Beirut: Dar al-Kotob al-Ilmiyah [In Arabic].
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Tabrizi, J. (2010). The Guidance of the Student in Explaining in the Makaseb, vol. 3, 6th edition, Qom: Dar al-Siddiqah al-Shahidah [In Arabic].
Tusi (Sheikh), M. (1967). Al-Mabsut in Imami Jurisprudence, vol. 3, 3rd edition, Tehran: Al-Mortazawiyya Library [In Arabic].
Zu
Abdolsattar, M. (2015). Jurisprudential Theories in Islamic Jurisprudence, 1st edition, Cairo: Cairo University [In Arabic].
Abu Zahra, M. (1939). Property And Contract Theory In Islamic Law, 1st edition, Cairo: Fathollah Elias Nouri and Sons [In Arabic].
Abu al-Aynayn Badran, B. (1999). History Of Islamic Jurisprudence and Property Theory and Contracts, Beirut: Dar Alnahda [In Arabic].
Adl, Mostafa. (1938). Civil Law, 3rd edition, Tehran: Kanooneketab [In Persian].
Ali Haydar (Afandi), A. (1991). Durar Al-Hakam Explanation Of The Majalla Al-Ahkam, Vol. 2, 1st edition, Beirut: Dar Al-Jeel [In Arabic].
Al-Sharif, M. M. and Jafari Khosroabadi, N. (2015). Theoretical challenges of sale of rights: A reflection on the possibility of right as consideration in sale, Journal of Legal Studies, 7(2), 1-26. [In Persian]. DOI: 10.22099/jls.2015.3211.
Ameri, P. and Moslehian, H. (2013). Vaqf of Properties of Legal Enteties, Journal of Legal Studies, 5(2), 161-191. [In Persian]. DOI: 10.22099/jls.2013.1810.
Ansari(Sheikh), M. (1990). Makaseb, volume 3, 1st edition, Qom: Daralzakhair [In Arabic].
Araki, M. (1994). Book of Sale, vol. 1, 1st edition, Qom: Esmailian [In Arabic].
Baravi, H. (2024). The Law of Fundamental Tangible Property, volume 3, on the Causes of Acquiring Ownership, 1st edition, Cairo: Cairo University [In Arabic].
Bojnourdi, M. (2000). Jurisprudence rules, vol. 1, 3rd edition, Tehran: Orouj printing and publishing [In Persian].
Fasihizadeh, A. and Heydari, A. (2017). A Comparative Analysis of the Concept, Causes of Creation and Transfer and Extinguishment of "Ownership" and "Right" in Iranian and French Law, Journal of Comparative Law, 4(2), 153-172. [In Persian]. DOI: 10.22096/law.2018.30734.
Fazlollah, M. (2009) . Jurisprudence of Sharia, Vol. 2, Beirut: Dar Al-Malak [In Arabic].
Habiba, S. and Shahbazi, M. (2017). Theoretical Approach to Acquisition of Ownership in Intellectual Property, Private Law, 14(1), 27-49. [In Persian]. DOI: 10.22059/jolt.2017.138235.1006062.
Hashemi Shahroudi, M. (2010). Encyclopedia of Comparative Islamic Jurisprudence, Vol. 1 and 6, 1st edition, Qom: Afiqh [In Arabic].
Helli, J. (1987). Sharaye al-Islam, volume 3, 2nd edition, Qom: Esmailian [In Arabic].
Hojjat kouhkamari, M. (1988). Book of Sale, 2nd edition, Qom: slamic Publishing Foundation [In Arabic].
Ibn Najim, Z. (1999). Al-Ashbah wa al-Naza'ir On The Doctrine Of Abu Hanifa Al-Nu'man, 1st edition, Beirut: Dar al-Kotob al-Ilmiyah [In Arabic].
Iraqi, M. (2013). Ownership of minerals in Islamic jurisprudence, 1st edition: Qom: Majmaolfekr [In Arabic].
Jafari Langroudi, M. (2018). Annotated Civil Code of iran. 6th edition, Tehran: Ganjedanesh [In Persian].
Jafari Langroudi, M. (2017). Civil Law of proprties. 7th edition, tehran: Ganjedanesh [In Persian].
Jafari Langroudi, M. (2020). Legal Terminology, 32nd edition, Tehran: Ganjedanesh [In Persian].
Javaherkalam, M. H. and Haddadi Ardakani, S. (2023). Identifying Criteria of ‘Waste in Law’ in Islamic Jurisprudence; by Analyzing the Rule of ‘Transfer to a Third Party of Good Faith’ in the Judicial Practice and a Plan to Amend the Iranian Civil Code, Journal of Islamic Law Research, 24(1), 109-138. [In Persian]. DOI: 10.30497/law.2023.243910.3330.
Javar, H. and Yaqubi Nader, M. (2025). Mitigation of Strict Rules Governing Ejectment Claims Regarding Innocent Possessors of Adjacent Properties, Journal of Legal Studies, 17(2), 243-282. [In Persian]. DOI: 10.22099/jls.2024.49891.5141.
Kalantar, M. (1989). Al-Makasab (Kalantar's Commentary on Sheikh Ansari's al-Makasib), Vol. 4, 3rd edition, Qom: Dar al-Ketab [In Arabic]. 
Karaki, A. (1993). Jame al-Maqasid, Vol. 6, 2nd edition, Qom: Alulbayt Foundation [In Arabic]. 
Kashif al-Gheta, M. (2001). Tahrir al-Majalla, Vol. 3, 1st edition, Qom: WFPIST (Majma al-Taqrib) [In Arabic]. 
Katouzian, A. (2020). Lessons from specific contracts, Vol. 2, 31st edition, Tehran: Ganjedanesh [In Persian].
Katouzian, A. (2019). Property and ownership, 51st edition, Tehran: Mizan [In Persian].
Katouzian, A. (2017). Specific Contracts, Vol. 1, Translative Contracts, 14th edition, Tehran: Sahamieenteshar [In Persian].
Khafif, A. (1996). Ownership in Islamic Sharia compared to the statutory laws, 1st edition, Cairo: daralfikr Al-arabi [In Arabic].
Khouyi, A. (1989). Misbah Al-Fiqaha, vol. 7, 1st edition, Qom: Al-Dawari Library [In Arabic].
Mahran, J.A. (2011). Provisions Of Succession In Islamic Sharia And Egyptian Law, Asyut: Asyut University [In Arabic].
Muhsin, M.H. and Jeyhan, A.S. (2022). Actual Disposal of Stolen Money: Comparative Study, Al-Mouhaqiq Al-Hilly Journal for Legal and Political Science at the University of Babylon, 14(1), 90-157. [In Arabic]. DOI: 10.36528/1150-014-001-004.
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Naraqi, M. (2001). Mashariq Al-Ahkam, 1st edition, Qom: Congress in Commemoration of Mulla Mahdi and Mulla Ahmad Naraqi [In Arabic].
Qarafi, S. (n.d), Anwar al-Buruq fi Anwae al-Furuq, Vol. 1 and 3, n.p: alam al-kotob [In Arabic]. 
Safai, H. and Hosseini, E. (2020). Civil Law introductory course, volume 1, persons and property, 29th edition, Tehran: Mizan [In Persian].
Safai, H. and Rahimi, H. (2017). Civil liability (non-contractual obligations), 10th edition, Tehran: Samt [In Persian].
Safai, H. and Rahimi, H. (2020). Comparative Tort Law, 2nd edition, Tehran: Shahredanesh [In Persian].
Sanglaji, M. (1974). Dala'il al-Sadad on the rules of Jurisprudence and Ijtihad, 1st edition, Tehran: matbaeh majles [In Persian].
Sanhuri, A. (2009). Al-Wasit In Explaining The New Civil Code, vol. 1,4, and 9, Beirut: Halabi-LP [In Arabic].
Shahidi, M. (2022). Civil law, volume 5, Extinction of Obligations, 16th edition, Tehran: Majd [In Persian].
Shahidi, M. (2024). Civil law 6, Specific contracts 1, 30th edition, Tehran: Majd [In Persian].
Shokry Srour, M. (2009). Summary of the Regulation of Property Rights in the Egyptian Civil Code, 1st edition, Cairo: Dar Alnahda [In Arabic].
Suyuti, J. (1990). Al-Ashbah wa al-Naza'ir in the Rules and Subtopics of Shafi'i Jurisprudence, 1st edition, Beirut: Dar al-Kotob al-Ilmiyah [In Arabic].
Tabataba'i Qomi, T. (1992). Oumda al-Matalib of Commentary on Al- Makaseb, Vol. 2, 1st edition: Qom: mahallati [In Arabic].
Tabrizi, J. (2010). The Guidance of the Student in Explaining in the Makaseb, vol. 3, 6th edition, Qom: Dar al-Siddiqah al-Shahidah [In Arabic].
Tusi (Sheikh), M. (1967). Al-Mabsut in Imami Jurisprudence, vol. 3, 3rd edition, Tehran: Al-Mortazawiyya Library [In Arabic].
Zuhaili, V. (2019). Islamic Jurisprudence And Its Evidence, vol. 4 and 6, 12th edition, Damascus: Dar Al-fikr [In Arabic].
Journal of Legal Studies
Volume 17, Issue 3 - Serial Number 57
October 2025
Pages 215-258

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